MTA 101 ("Film in America")
Instructor: Walter Metz
Aesthetics and Narrative Structure in Classical Hollywood Cinema
Today's Case Studies
In today’s lecture, I want to analyze Notorious from the perspective of aesthetic film history. To do so, I want to discuss two important aesthetic practices of the Classical Hollywood Cinema: Narrative Structure and Continuity Editing.
Narrative Structure refers to how a story is put together. The common narrative structure of Hollywood films is "Three-Act Structure," so named because of the tripartite organization of the plot: one act of exposition, one act of development, and one act of resolution. The source of Three-Act Structure lies in Aristotelian narrative theory; in Poetics, Aristotle argues that a well-structured plot has a beginning, middle, and an end. The beginning offers a state of equilibrium for the characters, so that we get to know them before the onset of the crisis that will drive the plot. The crisis comes along and plunges the characters into a state of disequilibrium. The characters respond to this crisis throughout the middle of the plot. Then, the characters devise some solution to the crisis, resulting in the restoration of equilibrium at the end.
You’ll notice that the narrative structure that Aristotle defines is dependent upon the centrality of characters. This is not the only model for narrative (avant-garde narrative often tells stories without characters at all), but it is the one adopted by mainstream Hollywood cinema. That is, narrative structure is a function of character in the Classical Hollywood Cinema. For the purposes of narrative structural analysis of Hollywood cinema, character will be defined as an agent who possesses an agenda (a goal). At the beginning of a classically structured plot, this character-agent does not possess the agency (skills) required to fulfill his or her agenda.
For example, in Jaws, Chief Brody is the plot’s agent (he is the town of Amity’s police chief who is responsible for the safety of the town’s inhabitants, who are being eaten at an increasingly alarming rate). Over the course of the first act of Jaws (the first act of a Hollywood film usually lasts at least 20 minutes and sometimes as long as an hour), Brody comes to realize his agenda: to kill the shark. However, at the moment he makes this realization, he does not have the agency to do so (he knows nothing about sharks, he is in fact even afraid of the water!). So, the second act of the film is about how Brody develops the agency for defeating the shark. At the climax, he will finally possess these skills (having the idea to blow up the shark with his rifle, a tool with which he is expert, given the fact that he is a police chief) to resolve the plot.
A similar characterological analysis can be accomplished with Notorious. At the beginning of the film, Devlin (the protagonist, the character who will develop and take action) is an agent (quite literally, a Federal agent) who possesses an agenda (he’s in love with both the USA and Alicia, the daughter of a Nazi, and thus must work to reconcile the two in order to be happy) but does not have the agency to produce this reconciliation. Throughout the film, he struggles with his jealously of Alicia for "betraying" their love by working for the government to ferret out the Nazis’ atomic plan. At the end of the film, Devlin finally possesses the agency for overcoming his jealousy, as he realizes that Alicia has risked her life for him and his country, and thus Devlin takes action to rescue Alicia and expose Alex as the buffoon that he is in front of the Nazis who will surely kill him.
As my discussion of the development of the characters in Jaws and Notorious indicates, there are very specific events that occur at various moments in the plot within the Three-Act Structure model. Below, I will define the function and features of each act and of the two "turning points" (the moments of transition between the acts). When analyzing or "resolving" the three-act structure of a plot, you need to specify the events of each act, as well as provide a justification for which two moments in your analysis of the film’s structure constitute its turning points.
Three-Act Structure in a Nutshell
{ For more on three-act structure, see Linda Seger, Making a Good Script Great. For a different overview of very similar material, see Syd Field, Screenplay.}
Act I (Exposition)
Functions of Act I
Tells us all of the vital information we need to begin to understand the story about to unfold. Begins to get us acclimated to the eventual story spine (the overall shape the story will take). Introduces the main characters.
Important Features of Act I
First Image: a visualization that gives us a strong sense of the place, mood, texture, and sometimes the theme. The first image is often rich with contrasts. The first image orients us to this particular narrative universe. The first image of Jaws is a dark and mysterious sea-weed bed underneath the ocean. The first image of Jaws thus conveys a site ripe for terror, where the inhabitant of this space, Bruce the shark, could lunge out at any moment and attack.
Catalyst: the precipitating event of this particular plot. The catalyst is the event which starts the story in motion. The catalyst of Jaws is the attack on the naked teenage girl out skinny-dipping during the beach party.
Operating Rules: the laws of this particular narrative universe. Given Circumstances: the elements of "reality" that the film assumes about the way its particular world operates. Each film has its own set of given circumstances, depending on the kind of story it is about to tell. One operating rule or given circumstance present in the first act of Jaws is that the town council runs the policies of Amity Island, not the police chief. This is important to the plot because more people are killed under their leadership (or lack thereof) than would have been had Brody been allowed to close the beaches.
Back Story: the history of the characters and the narrative universe before the plot we are watching actually begins. Part of the back story of Jaws is that Brody just recently moved his family to Amity Island to escape the crime and violence of New York City. This is important because it produces a bit of irony--the island turns out to be more violent due to the shark attacks--and establishes Brody’s outsider nature as a shark-hunter.
Central Question: The first act will build toward making us ask the central question, a question that we want to know the answer to by the end of Act I, and the answer to which we will receive at the climax in the middle of Act III. The Central Question of Jaws is, "Will Brody be able to kill the shark before it kills again?"
First Turning Point
Moves the story out of Act I and into Act II. The moment at which we understand what’s at stake in the story for the main characters. The first turning point clearly poses the central question of the film’s plot. The moment at which we understand what the central conflict of this story is. The First Turning Point (1st TP) will often re-invigorate the plot after it has seemingly come to a standstill. The 1st TP will often re-raise the central question, as the answer to it is less clear at the 1st TP than it was toward the end of Act I. The 1st TP is often a response to an ultimatum given to the main character. The 1st TP will often move the action of the story off in a new and unexpected direction. The 1st TP is often the moment when the main character finally decides to take decisive action. The 1st TP of Jaws is when the three men (Quint, Brody, and Hooper) leave the island in Quint’s boat in an attempt to kill the shark.
Act II (Development)
Functions of Act II
Develops the characters in response to the situation presented in Act I. Clarifies the abilities of the protagonist and the antagonist. Produces a progressive narrowing of options for the main characters, moving toward a set of deadlines and/or ultimatums.
Important Features of Act II
Action Points: dramatic events which cause immediate reactions by characters, featured in Act II because they maintain story momentum. In Jaws, each time the shark is struck by one of the floating barrels is an action point.
Barriers: obstacles to the protagonist’s quest to resolve the central question favorably. A barrier will often stop the action until the character decides upon a new course of action. In Jaws, when Quint smashes the radio, this presents a barrier to Brody’s plan of calling for the "bigger boat" needed to defeat the shark.
Complications: Action points that do not pay off immediately. A complication will produce a response eventually, but the response is most often delayed until Act III. The complications push the story forward by leading to an anticipated payoff. In Jaws, Brody tripping over the oxygen tank that Hooper has brought on board presents a complication: Quint yells at him for bringing such useless yet dangerous equipment on board. However, this is paid off when Brody uses the oxygen tank in the third act to blow up the shark.
Second Turning Point
Moves the story out of Act 2 and into Act 3. The moment at which we realize the climactic confrontation is inevitable. The Second Turning Point (2nd TP) usually speeds up the action considerably. The 2nd TP is often expressed as a character’s response to an enforced deadline or ultimatum. The 2nd TP is NOT the climax itself. The 2nd TP of Jaws is when the boat begins to sink. This makes the climactic confrontation inevitable because either the men will find out a way to kill the shark or the shark will eat all three of them. These are the only two possible outcomes once the boat starts to sink, thus notifying us clearly that the central question ("Will Brody figure out a way to kill the shark?") will either be answered affirmatively or negatively.
Act III (Resolution)
Functions of Act III
Quickens the pace, speeding up from Act I and Act II. Restores equilibrium to the narrative universe.
Important Features of Act III
Climax: the end of the story proper, when the central conflict is resolved (the central question gets answered). The climax of Jaws is the final battle with the shark (Quint gets eaten, Hooper gets sent to the bottom of the ocean, Brody blows the shark up with his rifle).
Denouement: ties up all the loose ends of the plot. In Jaws, Brody and Hooper swim back to the island.
How to Resolve the Three-Act Structure of a Film
First, since the narrative is organized around character, you need to identify the protagonist-antagonist spine of the plot. That is, who is the hero (the character with whom we are meant to idenfity) and who stands in the way of that character’s agenda. Sometimes this is easy: in Jaws, Brody is the obvious protagonist since he has the most screen time and is most like us, in that he is not a shark expert or old grizzled shark hunter; while "Bruce" the shark is the obvious antagonist since he goes around eating people. Sometimes this is a bit more tricky: in Notorious, we may begin to resolve the three-act structure using Alicia as the protagonist since she has the most screen time. However, the end of the film does not work at all then, since she is unconscious for most of it. Instead, we come to realize that Alicia is a pawn in the game between Devlin the protagonist and Alex the antagonist (sexist yes, but structurally sound nonetheless).
Once you have identified the protagonist-antagonist character spine, then you need to settle upon the film’s central question. The central question will generally not be thematic but instead bare-bones plot-oriented. Thus, the central question of Notorious is not about patriotism or loyalty (although these clearly are the film’s thematic interests) but about Devlin’s job and his love for Alicia. The central question is, "Can an American spy have a successful relationship with the daughter of a Nazi?"
Once you have the central question identified, then you need to define the two turning points. The First Turning Point will clearly pose the central question. The First Turning Point of Notorious is when Devlin gives Alicia the assignment to seduce Alex. This not only produces the conflict between protagonist and antagonist (over Alicia’s love), but raises the question of Alicia’s loyalty (Will her true Nazi nature come out once she is back among the Nazis?). The Second Turning Point is the moment at which we realize the climactic confrontation is inevitable. The Second Turning Point of Notorious is when Devlin senses something is wrong with Alicia and decides to go see her at Alex’s mansion. This makes the climactic confrontation inevitable because once he gets there, he will discover Alex has been poisoning her and will need to take action.
After this, you need to fill in the other elements. State the catalyst to pinpoint the beginning of the film’s action. In Notorious, the catalyst is the sentencing of Alicia’s father to prison. Discuss Act I’s given circumstances and operating rules. Then, discuss the action points and complications of Act II that define the protagonist’s developmental arc: what experiences is he having that will lead to his ability to fulfill his agenda in Act III? Discuss Act III's climax and denouement.
In the midst of offering your assertions about the structural elements, be sure to constantly argue your justification for making these claims.
A Sample Analysis of the Three-Act Structure of a Film: Star Wars
Star Wars emplots a character spine focusing on the developmental arc experienced by Luke Skywalker. He is the protagonist of the film because he is most like us, a nobody farm boy who is suddenly thrown into an epic battle against evil. The film’s antagonist is the embodiment of that evil, the black-clad Darth Vader. The climax will ultimately bear this out, as protagonist and antagonist confront one another in the spaceship battle over the Death Star.
The central question of Star Wars is, "Can a nobody farm boy defeat Darth Vader and his evil empire?" The question is most clearly posed at the First Turning Point, when Luke discovers the fried remains of his aunt and uncle. Up until this point in the plot, Obi-Wan Kenobi’s pleas to Luke to learn about the Force and help in the fight against the Empire have been rejected by Luke, who speaks of his responsibilities as a farm boy. However, the death of his aunt and uncle severs Luke’s ties to the farm, and makes Luke seek vengeance against the Imperial troops (led by Vader) who have committed this act of atrocity. We also know that this is the First Turning Point because it is stolen from the exact same first turning point of The Searchers (John Ford, 1956), a film you will see in a few weeks.
The second turning point of Star Wars occurs when Darth Vader "kills" Obi-Wan. This makes the climactic confrontation between Luke and Darth inevitable, since it is Obi-Wan’s plan to allow himself to guide Luke from the hereafter. He also knows that Luke will seek vengeance for this further atrocity, having witnessed the "bad" father slaying the "good" father.
The catalyst of Star Wars is Princess Leia’s act of hiding the plans for the Death Star in R2D2's memory banks. This causes the plot to move toward Luke’s farm (and eventually will lead to the climax, the attack on the Death Star). The first act of the film offers the given circumstances of a rebellion against an evil empire. The back story is that Luke’s father used to be a Jedi knight like Obi-Wan.
Act II offers developmental material of Luke’s growing powers as a Jedi knight in training. The various action points show how he learns to be a better fighter: the garbage-compactor scene for example has Luke demonstration patience, yelling at Han for shooting first and asking questions later. Luke practices his Jedi ways on the Millenium Falcon: "but with the blast shield down, how am I supposed to see anything?").
Act Three consists of the climactic attack on the Death Star. It features a battle between protagonist and antagonist, in which the hero’s friendship with Han serves as an advantage over the cold and evil Darth Vader: Han loves Luke enough to risk his neck for him despite little chance for a reward. The film’s denouement features Luke and Han receiving medals from the victorious rebels.
Classical Hollywood Continuity Editing
The other aesthetic feature of Classical Hollywood Cinema that helps understand Notorious is its intriguing use of continuity editing. A Hollywood film is edited together in a cause-and-effect sequence that is incredibly rigid. Hollywood films may modulate their editing from one scene to the next, but always these scenes endorse the development of the narrative within the confines of the rules of continuity editing. As an example of this modulation, I will analyze the editing practices of three contiguous scenes from Notorious.
An Editing Analysis of Three Consecutive Scenes from Notorious
1. Park Bench Scene
No cutting. The long take filmed frontally (as far off-axis as one can get) illustrates the characters’ distance from one another. The don’t look at one another: thus we know that they are not "seeing eye to eye" about the problems in their relationship. The long take also works to produce a sense of tension: we want them to get together, thus we want to see a set of over-the-shoulder two-shots of them looking lovingly into one another’s eyes.
2. The Key Scene
The "Key Scene" begins with the classical breakdown of space: we cut from an ELS exterior shot to a LS inside the house of the clock to a LS of Alicia standing at the doorway.
Once the "Key Scene" begins, we learn that continuity editing constructs space as a function of character. That is, the 180 degree line is set up by the glances that Alicia makes (toward the keys, toward Alex’s shadow on the bathroom door). This is an incredibly important point, because all filmmaking systems do not harness all of their narrative and aesthetic practices to characters as does the Classical Hollywood Cinema.
The Key Scene is a Scene Sequence (a set of shots unified by time and place which features its own three-act structure in miniature. The scene sequence is a chunk of story which is not interrupted by subplots, and resolves a local concern of the narrative). At first, we think that what is at stake in the Key Scene is "Can Alicia get the key off of the key chain before Alex emerges from the bathroom? ("I’ll be with you in a minute, darling"). However, it turns out that this is merely the first part of the drama (it was the first act of this scene sequence). The central question turns out to be, "Can Alicia escape from Alex with the key?" The 2nd TP of this scene sequence is when Alex moves to kiss Alicia’s hand. At this moment, we know the climax is inevitable: either the key is in Alicia’s hand, and Alex will catch her, or it is in her other hand, and she will get away with it. The scene sequence of course uses this surface action to embed a deeper thematic meaning: this is once again Alicia’s demonstration of her lover for Devlin, despite how mean he’s been to her.
The Key Scene provides an interesting modulation of objective and subjective camerawork. It begins with objective camerawork: A shot of Alicia at the doorway from a position only the camera could take (Alex, the only other character in the scene, is in the bathroom). Then, we cut to subjective camerawork: Alicia’s glance at the the key. The camera then tracks toward the key. Here is a typically Hitchcockian touch: we think this tracking camera represents Alicia’s walking forward to get the key. However, we then cut back to the LS of Alicia still standing at the doorway. Hitchcock has played a joke on us: the tracking camera only represented Alicia’s desire to get the key, not her actual movement to do so. This serves to increase the tension in the scene, as we know that precious time has been wasted just looking at the key rather than going to get it.
3. Party Scene
While the key scene is filled with aggressive uses of the continuity editing system to create suspense, its ordinariness is modulated by the sumptuousness of the editing and camerawork in the subsequent Party Scene. The scene begins with the most aggressive use of film style in the entire film: the monstrous crane shot which begins in ELS and ends in a CU of the key in Alicia’s hand.
Unlike the Key Scene, which is built upon one point of view, that of Alicia, the Party Scene is built out of a competition between many characters’ points of view (Alicia’s, Alex’s, and Devlin’s). For example, the glance-object cutting as Alicia and Devlin begin talking while Alex looks on from across the room indicates two different interpretations of the events: Alicia and Devlin are trying not to get caught handing off the key, while Alex is worried that Alicia and Devlin are having an affair.
The Party Scene features an axis cross (the editing breaks the 180 degree rule). In the doorway as Alex confronts Devlin, we cross the axis. This is OK in a Hollywood film, because the doorway masks the "mistake." It serves a crucial narrative function: getting us from the drama of one room (Alicia and Devlin getting away with the key exchange) to the drama of another room (will the champagne run out before Devlin has a chance to check what’s in the champagne bottles?).
Stylistic Analysis of The Miracle of Morgan’s Creek
Now that we’ve studied a number of aesthetic practices (narrative structure, editing, mise-en-scene), it is important to learn how one draws them all together to construct an argument about the meaning of a particular film. My example is The Miracle of Morgan’s Creek (Preston Sturges, 1944). In the following analysis, I will examine the aesthetic features of the film and track how they shift across the narrative structural development of the film. I engage in such analysis to ultimately prove a thematic/ideological point: that the seemingly radical and counter-cultural The Miracle of Morgan’s Creek in fact ends up arguing for a very traditional view of gender and the family.
The Four Walking Sequences on The Miracle of Morgan’s Creek
1. Trudy convinces Norval to let her borrow his car so that she may go to the party with the soldiers
2. Trudy and her sister walk back home from the doctor’s and lawyer’s offices
3. Trudy tells Norval that she’s pregnant
4. Trudy and Norval try to solve her problem together
To wit, the ideological point: that all roads lead back to the home; the home is the place wherein one’s problems will be solved.
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This page was last updated on May 30, 2001
Questions or Comments? Please phone me at (406) 994-6403 or send e-mail to: metz@montana.edu
Walter Metz, Department of Media and Theatre Arts, Montana State University--Bozeman